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Cannabis (drug)
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"Marijuana" redirects here.
For other uses, see Marijuana
(disambiguation).
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Cannabis |
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 Close-up
of flowering cannabis plant |
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Pronunciation |
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Source
plant(s) |
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Part(s)
of plant |
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Geographic
origin |
Central
or South Asia |
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Tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabinol, tetrahydrocannabivarin |
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Main
producers |
Afghanistan,
Canada, China, Colombia, India, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco,
Netherlands, Pakistan, Paraguay, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom,
United States |
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Cannabis,[a] also known as marijuana[b] or weed among other
names, is a psychoactive drug from the cannabis plant. Native to Central or South Asia, the
cannabis plant has been used as a drug for both recreational and entheogenic purposes and in various traditional
medicines for
centuries. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive component of
cannabis, which is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant, including at
least 65 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporizing, within food, or as an extract.
Cannabis has various mental and
physical effects,
which include euphoria, altered
states of mind and sense
of time, difficulty
concentrating, impaired
short-term memory,
impaired body movement (balance and fine psychomotor control), relaxation,
and an increase in appetite.
Onset of effects is felt within minutes when smoked, but may take up to 90
minutes when eaten (as orally consumed drugs must be metabolized). The effects
last for two to six hours, depending on the amount used. At high doses, mental
effects can include anxiety,
delusions (including ideas of
reference), hallucinations, panic, paranoia,
and psychosis. There is a strong relation between cannabis use and the
risk of psychosis, though the direction of causality is debated. Physical effects include increased
heart rate, difficulty breathing, nausea, and behavioral problems in children
whose mothers used cannabis during pregnancy; short-term side effects may also
include dry mouth and red eyes. Long-term
adverse effects may
include addiction, decreased mental ability in those who started regular use as adolescents,[3] chronic coughing, susceptibility to respiratory
infections, and cannabinoid
hyperemesis syndrome.
Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal
drug, although it may also be used for spiritual purposes. In 2013, between 128
and 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population
between the ages of 15 and 65). It is the most commonly used largely-illegal
drug in the world, with the highest use among adults in Zambia, the United
States, Canada, and Nigeria. Since the 1970s, the potency of illicit cannabis has
increased, with THC levels rising and CBD levels dropping.
While cannabis plants have been grown since at least the
3rd millennium BCE, evidence suggests that it was being smoked for psychoactive
effects at least 2,500 years ago in the Pamir Mountains, Asia.[4] Since the 14th century, cannabis has been subject
to legal restrictions. The possession, use, and cultivation of cannabis has
been illegal in most
countries since the
20th century. In 2013, Uruguay became the first country to legalize recreational
use of cannabis. Other countries to do so are Canada, Georgia, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, South
Africa, and Thailand. In the U.S., the recreational use of cannabis is
legalized in 24 states, 3 territories, and the District
of Columbia, though the drug
remains federally
illegal. In Australia, it is legalized only in the Australian
Capital Territory.
Etymology
Borrowed from Latin cannabis (“hemp”),
from Ancient Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis).[citation
needed]
The first reference to marihuana was
found in 1842 in Mexican newspapers, and then the term made its way to the U.S.
in the 1890s.[5]
Uses
Medical
Main article: Medical cannabis
Example of a container and the recreational cannabis
purchase in Canada
Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana, refers to the use
of cannabis to treat disease or improve symptoms; however, there is no single
agreed-upon definition (e.g., cannabinoids derived from cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids
are also used).[6][7][8] The rigorous scientific study of cannabis as a
medicine has been hampered by production restrictions and by the fact that it
is classified as an illegal drug by many governments.[9] There is some evidence suggesting cannabis can be
used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS,
or to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms. Evidence for its use for other medical applications is
insufficient for drawing conclusions about safety or efficacy.[10][11][12] There is evidence supporting the use of cannabis or
its derivatives in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting,
neuropathic pain, and multiple sclerosis. Lower levels of evidence support its
use for AIDS wasting syndrome, epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, and glaucoma.[13]
The medical use of cannabis is legal only in a limited
number of territories, including Canada,[14] Belgium,
Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand,[15][16] Spain, and many
U.S. states. This usage
generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done within a
framework defined by local laws.[13]
Recreational
According to DEA Chief Administrative Law Judge, Francis
Young, "cannabis is one of the safest therapeutically active substances
known to man".[17] Being under the effects of cannabis is usually
referred to as being "high".[18] Cannabis consumption has both psychoactive and
physiological effects.[19] The "high" experience can vary widely,
based (among other things) on the user's prior experience with cannabis, and
the type of cannabis consumed.[20]: p647 When
smoking cannabis, a euphoriant effect can occur within minutes of smoking.[21]: p104 Aside
from a subjective change in perception and mood, the most common short-term
physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, increased
appetite, impairment of short-term and working memory, and psychomotor
coordination.[22][23]
Additional desired effects from consuming cannabis
include relaxation, a general alteration
of conscious perception,
increased awareness of sensation, increased libido[24] and distortions
in the perception of time and
space. At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations and ataxia from
selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes.[citation
needed] In some cases, cannabis can lead to dissociative states such as depersonalization[25][26] and derealization.[27]
Spiritual
Main article: Entheogenic
use of cannabis
Cannabis has held sacred status in several religions and
has served as an entheogen – a chemical
substance used in
religious, shamanic,
or spiritual contexts[28] – in the Indian subcontinent since the Vedic period. The earliest known reports regarding the sacred status
of cannabis in the Indian subcontinent come from the Atharva Veda, estimated to have been composed sometime around 1400
BCE.[29] The Hindu god Shiva is described as a cannabis user, known as the
"Lord of bhang."[30]: p19
In modern culture, the spiritual use of cannabis has been
spread by the disciples of the Rastafari
movement who use
cannabis as a sacrament and as an aid to meditation.[29]
Consumption
Main article: Cannabis
consumption
Modes of consumption
A joint prior to rolling, with a paper handmade filter on
the left
Many different ways to consume cannabis involve heat
to decarboxylate THCA into THC;[31][32] common modes include:
·
Smoking,
involves burning and inhaling cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable
versions of hookahs with
a water chamber), paper-wrapped joints,
tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts,
or the like.[33]
·
Vaporizing, heating various forms of cannabis to 165–190 °C
(329–374 °F),[34] causing the active ingredients to form vapor without
combustion of the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at atmospheric
pressure).[35]
·
Edibles,
adding cannabis as an ingredient to a wide variety of foods, including butter
and baked goods. In India it is commonly consumed as the beverage bhang.
·
Cannabis tea, prepared with attention to the lipophilic quality of THC, which is only slightly
water-soluble (2.8 mg per liter),[36] often involving cannabis in a saturated fat.[37]
·
Tincture of
cannabis, sometimes known
as green dragon, is an alcoholic cannabis
concentrate.
·
Capsules, typically containing cannabis oil, and other dietary
supplement products,
for which some 220 were approved in Canada in 2018.[14]
Consumption by country
Main article: Annual
cannabis use by country
|
Global estimates of drug users in 2016 |
|||
|
Substance |
Best |
Low |
High |
|
34.16 |
13.42 |
55.24 |
|
|
Cannabis |
192.15 |
165.76 |
234.06 |
|
18.20 |
13.87 |
22.85 |
|
|
20.57 |
8.99 |
32.34 |
|
|
19.38 |
13.80 |
26.15 |
|
|
34.26 |
27.01 |
44.54 |
|
In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis
(2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65).[39] Cannabis is by far the most widely used illicit
substance,[40] with the highest use among adults (as of 2018)
in Zambia, the United
States, Canada, and Nigeria.[41]
United States
Between 1973 and 1978, eleven states decriminalized
marijuana.[42] In 2001, Nevada reduced marijuana possession to a misdemeanor and
since 2012, several other states have decriminalized and even legalized
marijuana.[42]
In 2018, almost half of the people in the United States
had tried marijuana, 16% had used it in the past year, and 11% had used it in
the past month.[43] In 2014, daily marijuana use amongst US college
students had reached its highest level since records began in 1980, rising from
3.5% in 2007 to 5.9% in 2014 and had surpassed daily cigarette use.[44]
In the US, men are over twice as likely to use marijuana
as women, and 18–29-year-olds are six times more likely to use as
over-65-year-olds.[45] In 2015, a record 44% of the US population has
tried marijuana in their lifetime, an increase from 38% in 2013 and 33% in
1985.[45]
Marijuana use in the United States is three times above
the global average, but in line with other Western democracies. Forty-four
percent of American 12th graders have tried the drug at least once, and the
typical age of first-use is 16, similar to the typical age of first-use for
alcohol but lower than the first-use age for other illicit drugs.[40]
A 2022 Gallup poll concluded Americans are smoking more marijuana
than cigarettes for the first time.[46]
Adverse
effects
Further information: Effects
of cannabis
Short-term
Main short-term physical effects of cannabis
Acute negative effects may include anxiety and panic,
impaired attention and memory, an increased risk of psychotic symptoms,[c] the inability to think clearly, and an increased
risk of accidents.[49][50][51] Cannabis impairs a person's driving ability,
and THC was the illicit drug most frequently found in the
blood of drivers who have been involved in vehicle crashes. Those with THC in
their system are from three to seven times more likely to be the cause of the
accident than those who had not used either cannabis or alcohol, although its
role is not necessarily causal because THC stays in the bloodstream for days to
weeks after intoxication.[52][53][d]
Some immediate undesired side effects include a decrease
in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, reddening of the eyes,[56] dizziness, feeling tired and vomiting.[11] Some users may experience an episode of acute psychosis, which usually abates after six hours, but in rare
instances, heavy users may find the symptoms continuing for many days.[57]
Legalization has increased the rates at which children
are exposed to cannabis, particularly from edibles. While the toxicity and
lethality of THC in children is not known, they are at risk for encephalopathy,
hypotension, respiratory depression severe enough to require ventilation,
somnolence and coma.[58][59]
Fatality
There is no clear evidence for a link between cannabis
use and deaths from cardiovascular disease, but a 2019 review noted that it may
be an under-reported, contributory factor or direct cause in cases of
sudden death,
due to the strain it can place on the cardiovascular
system. Some deaths have also been
attributed to cannabinoid
hyperemesis syndrome.[60] There is an association between cannabis use and
suicide, particularly in younger users.[61]
A 16-month survey of Oregon and Alaska emergency
departments found a report of the death of an adult who had been admitted for
acute cannabis toxicity.[62]
Long-term
Main article: Long-term
effects of cannabis
Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology,
forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged
in delphic analysis regarding
20 popular recreational drugs. Cannabis was ranked 11th in dependence, 17th in
physical harm, and 10th in social harm.[63]
Psychological effects
A 2015 meta-analysis found that, although a longer period
of abstinence was associated with smaller magnitudes of impairment, both
retrospective and prospective memory were impaired in cannabis users. The
authors concluded that some, but not all, of the deficits associated with
cannabis use were reversible.[64] A 2012 meta-analysis found that deficits in most
domains of cognition persisted beyond the acute period of intoxication, but was
not evident in studies where subjects were abstinent for more than 25 days.[65] Few high quality studies have been performed on the
long-term effects of cannabis on cognition, and the results were generally
inconsistent.[66] Furthermore, effect sizes of significant findings were generally small.[65] One review concluded that, although most cognitive
faculties were unimpaired by cannabis use, residual deficits occurred in executive
functions.[67] Impairments in executive functioning are most
consistently found in older populations, which may reflect heavier cannabis
exposure, or developmental effects associated with adolescent cannabis use.[68] One review found three prospective cohort studies
that examined the relationship between self-reported cannabis use and intelligence
quotient (IQ). The
study following the largest number of heavy cannabis users reported that IQ
declined between ages 7–13 and age 38. Poorer school performance and increased
incidence of leaving school early were both associated with cannabis use,
although a causal relationship was not established.[69] Cannabis users demonstrated increased activity in
task-related brain regions, consistent with reduced processing efficiency.[70]
A reduced quality of life is associated with heavy cannabis use, although the
relationship is inconsistent and weaker than for tobacco and other substances.[71] The direction of cause and effect, however, is unclear.[71]
The long-term
effects of cannabis are
not clear.[11] There are concerns surrounding memory and
cognition problems,
risk of addiction, and the risk of schizophrenia in young people.[10]
Neuroimaging
Although global abnormalities in white matter and grey matter are not consistently associated with heavy cannabis
use,[72] reduced hippocampal volume is consistently found.[73] Amygdala abnormalities
are sometimes reported, although findings are inconsistent.[74][75][76]
Cannabis use is associated with increased recruitment of
task-related areas, such as the dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex,
which is thought to reflect compensatory activity due to reduced processing
efficiency.[76][75][77] Cannabis use is also associated with downregulation
of CB1 receptors.
The magnitude of down regulation is associated with cumulative cannabis
exposure, and is reversed after one month of abstinence.[69][78][79] There is limited evidence that chronic cannabis use
can reduce levels of glutamate metabolites in the human brain.[80]
Cannabis dependence
Main article: Cannabis
dependence
About 9% of those who experiment with marijuana
eventually become dependent according to DSM-IV (1994) criteria.[13] A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated
with a 10–20% rate of dependence.[10] The highest risk of cannabis dependence is found in
those with a history of poor academic achievement, deviant behavior in childhood and adolescence, rebelliousness, poor
parental relationships, or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems.[81] Of daily users, about 50% experience withdrawal
upon cessation of use (i.e. are dependent), characterized by sleep problems,
irritability, dysphoria, and craving.[69] Cannabis withdrawal is less severe than withdrawal
from alcohol.[82]
According to DSM-V criteria, 9% of those who are exposed to cannabis
develop cannabis use disorder, compared to 20% for cocaine,
23% for alcohol and
68% for nicotine.
Cannabis use disorder in the DSM-V involves a combination of DSM-IV criteria
for cannabis abuse and dependence, plus the addition of craving, without the
criterion related to legal troubles.[69]
Psychiatric
See also: Long-term
effects of cannabis § Mental health
At an epidemiological level, a dose–response
relationship exists
between cannabis use and increased risk of psychosis[83][84][85][86] and earlier onset of psychosis.[87] Although the epidemiological association is robust,
evidence to prove a causal relationship is lacking.[88]
Cannabis may also increase the risk of depression, but
insufficient research has been performed to draw a conclusion.[89][85] Cannabis use is associated with increased risk of
anxiety disorders, although causality has not been established.[90]
A review in 2019 found that research was insufficient to
determine the safety and efficacy of using cannabis to treat schizophrenia,
psychosis, or other mental disorders.[91][92] Another found that cannabis during adolescence was
associated with an increased risk of developing depression and suicidal
behavior later in life, while finding no effect on anxiety.[93]
Physical
Heavy, long-term exposure to marijuana may have physical,
mental, behavioral and social health consequences. It may be "associated
with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature".[94] A 2014 review found that while cannabis use may be
less harmful than alcohol use, the recommendation to substitute it for problematic drinking was premature without further study.[95] Various surveys conducted between 2015 and 2019
found that many users of cannabis substitute it for prescription drugs (including opioids), alcohol, and tobacco; most of
those who used it in place of alcohol or tobacco either reduced or stopped
their intake of the latter substances.[96]
Cannabinoid
hyperemesis syndrome (CHS)
is a severe condition seen in some chronic cannabis users where they have
repeated bouts of uncontrollable vomiting for 24–48 hours. Four cases of death
have been reported as a result of CHS.[97][98]
A limited number of studies have examined the effects
of cannabis smoking on
the respiratory system.[99] Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated
with respiratory
infections,[100] coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other
symptoms of chronic bronchitis.[49] The available evidence does not support a causal
relationship between cannabis use and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease.[101] Short-term use of cannabis is associated with bronchodilation.[102] Other side effects of cannabis use include cannabinoid
hyperemesis syndrome (CHS),
a condition which involves recurrent nausea, cramping abdominal pain, and
vomiting.[103]
Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and
inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco
smoke,[104] and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke,[105] including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes,
and polycylic
hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.[106] Cannabis smoke is also inhaled more deeply than
tobacco smoke.[107] As of 2015, there is no consensus regarding whether
cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer.[108] Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed
to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these
cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far
lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when
compared with those of tobacco.[109] A 2015 review found an association between cannabis
use and the development of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs), particularly non-seminoma TGCTs.[110] Another 2015 meta-analysis found no association
between lifetime cannabis use and risk of head or neck cancer.[111] Combustion products are not present when using
a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.[112]
There is concern that cannabis may contribute to
cardiovascular disease,[113] but as of 2018, evidence of this relationship was
unclear.[114] Research in these events is complicated because
cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol
and cocaine that are known to have cardiovascular risk factors.[115] Smoking cannabis has also been shown to increase
the risk of myocardial
infarction by 4.8
times for the 60 minutes after consumption.[116]
There is preliminary evidence that cannabis interferes
with the anticoagulant properties of prescription drugs used for treating blood clots.[117] As of 2019, the mechanisms for the anti-inflammatory and possible pain relieving effects of cannabis were not defined, and there
were no governmental regulatory approvals or clinical practices for use of
cannabis as a drug.[92]
Emergency department visits
Emergency room (ER) admissions associated with cannabis
use rose significantly from 2012 to 2016; adolescents from age 12–17 had the
highest risk.[118] At one Colorado medical center following
legalization, approximately two percent of ER admissions were classified as
cannabis users. The symptoms of one quarter of these users were partially
attributed to cannabis (a total of 2567 out of 449,031 patients); other drugs
were sometimes involved. Of these cannabis admissions, one quarter were
for acute
psychiatric effects,
primarily suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety. An additional third of the
cases were for gastrointestinal issues including Cannabinoid
hyperemesis syndrome.[119]
According to the United States Department of Health and
Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with
cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was
treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug
use must be "implicated" in the emergency department visit, but does
not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of the illicit drug
emergency room visits involved multiple drugs.[120] In 129,000 cases, cannabis was the only implicated
drug.[120][13]
Reproductive health
Further information: Cannabis
in pregnancy
There is sufficient evidence of reproductive health harms
from cannabis that its use when trying to conceive, during pregnancy, and while
breastfeeding, is not advisable.[121]
It has been recommended that cannabis use be stopped
before and during pregnancy as it can result in negative outcomes for both the
mother and baby,[122][123] such as behavioral problems.[124] However, maternal use of marijuana during pregnancy
does not appear to be associated with low birth weight or early delivery after
controlling for tobacco use and other confounding factors.[125]
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
See also: Effects
of cannabis § Biochemical mechanisms in the brain
THC is a weak partial agonist at CB1 receptors, while CBD is a CB1 receptor antagonist.[126][127] The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as
in some peripheral tissues, and the CB2 receptor
is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is also expressed in neuroglial cells.[128] THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its
agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary
messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose-dependent manner.
Via CB1 receptor activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release
and produces psychotropic effects.[129] CBD also
acts as an allosteric
modulator of
the μ- and δ-opioid
receptors.[130] THC also potentiates the effects of the glycine receptors.[131] It is unknown if or how these actions contribute to
the effects of cannabis.[132]
Pharmacokinetics
The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the
body for long periods of time.[133] Even after a single administration of THC,
detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer
(depending on the amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment
method).[133] Investigators have suggested that this is an
important factor in marijuana's effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may
accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes of neurons.[134]
Chemistry
Chemical composition
See also: Difference between C. indica and C. sativa
The main psychoactive component of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is formed via decarboxylation of tetrahydrocannabinolic
acid (THCA) from the application of heat. Raw leaf is not
psychoactive because the cannabinoids are in the form of carboxylic acids.[citation
needed] THC is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant,[135] including at least 65 other cannabinoids,[136] such as cannabidiol (CBD).[51]
Detection in body fluids
Main article: Cannabis
drug testing
THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be
measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or
a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense.[57] The concentrations obtained from such analyses can
often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed
time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however,
distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized
recreational smoking.[137] Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed as the initial screening method when
testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees
of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites.[138] Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair,
oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC.[57] Blood may contain both substances, with the
relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.[57]
The Duquenois–Levine test is
commonly used as a screening
test in the field, but it cannot
definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances
have been shown to give false positives.[139] Researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice
reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and other
drugs in urine.[140] However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at
the University
of Utah School of Medicine refute
the possibility of self-administered zinc producing false-negative urine drug
tests.[141]
Varieties
and strains
Types of cannabis
A macro cannabis bud
CBD is a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, which is under laboratory research to
determine if it has an anxiolytic effect.[142] It is often claimed that sativa strains provide a
more stimulating psychoactive high while indica strains are more sedating with
a body high.[143] However, this is disputed by researchers.[144]
A 2015 review found that the use of high CBD-to-THC
strains of cannabis showed significantly fewer positive symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, better cognitive
function and both
lower risk for developing psychosis, as well as a later age of onset of the
illness, compared to cannabis with low CBD-to-THC ratios.[145]
Psychoactive ingredients
According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), "the amount of THC present in a
cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."[146] The three main forms of cannabis products are the
flower/fruit, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that
cannabis often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC
content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC
content."[146]
Studies have found that the potency of illicit cannabis
has greatly increased since the 1970s, with THC levels rising and CBD levels
dropping.[147][148][149] It is unclear, however, whether the increase in THC
content has caused people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on the
potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higher THC content allows people
to ingest less tar. At the same time, CBD levels in seized samples have
lowered, in part because of the desire to produce higher THC levels and because
more illegal growers cultivate indoors using artificial lights. This helps
avoid detection but reduces the CBD production of the plant.[150]
Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (infructescences) of the female cannabis plant
contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks
and seeds have "much lower THC levels".[151] The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times
less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.[146]
After revisions to cannabis scheduling in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from
a class C to
a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency
cannabis. They believe skunk accounts for between 70 and 80% of samples seized
by police[152] (despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be
incorrectly mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[153][154] Extracts such
as hashish and hash oil typically
contain more THC than high potency cannabis infructescences.[155]
Laced cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids
See also: Synthetic
cannabinoids § Hemp (or low potent cannabis) buds
Hemp buds (or low-potency cannabis buds) laced with synthetic
cannabinoids started to
be sold as cannabis street drug in 2020.[156][157][158][159]
The short-term effects of cannabis can be altered if it
has been laced with opioid drugs
such as heroin or fentanyl.[160] The added drugs are meant to enhance the
psychoactive properties, add to its weight, and increase profitability, despite
the increased danger of overdose.[161][e]
Preparations
·
Dried flower buds
(marijuana)
·
A gram of kief
·
Hashish
·
Hash oil
·
Infusion (dairy
butter)
Marijuana
Further information: Marijuana (word)
Marijuana or marihuana (herbal cannabis)[163] consists of the dried flowers and fruits and
subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant.[164][165][166][167] This is the most widely consumed form,[167] containing 3% to 20% THC,[168] with reports of up to 33% THC.[169] This is the stock material from which all other
preparations are derived. Although herbal cannabis and industrial hemp derive from the same species and contain the
psychoactive component (THC), they are distinct strains with unique biochemical
compositions and uses. Hemp has lower concentrations of THC and higher
concentrations of CBD, which gives lesser psychoactive effects.[170][171]
Kief
Main article: Kief
Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes,[172] which can be sifted from the leaves, flowers and
fruits of cannabis plants and either consumed in
powder form or
compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[173] The word "kif" derives from colloquial Arabic كيف kēf/kīf, meaning pleasure.[174]
Hashish
Main article: Hashish
Legal hashish shop in Kathmandu, Nepal in 1973
Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash)
is a concentrated resin cake
or ball produced from pressed kief, the detached trichomes and fine material
that falls off cannabis fruits, flowers and leaves.[175] or from scraping the resin from the surface of the
plants and rolling it into balls. It varies in color from black to golden brown
depending upon purity and variety of cultivar it was obtained from.[176] It can be consumed orally or smoked, and is also
vaporized, or 'vaped'.[177] The term "rosin hash" refers to a high
quality solventless product obtained through heat and pressure.[178]
Tincture
Main article: Tincture
of cannabis
Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as "green dragon".[30]: p17 Nabiximols is a branded product name from
a tincture manufacturing pharmaceutical company.[179]
Hash oil
Main article: Hash oil
Hash oil is a resinous matrix of cannabinoids obtained from the cannabis plant by solvent
extraction,[180] formed into a hardened or viscous mass.[181] Hash oil can be the most potent of the main
cannabis products because of its high level of psychoactive compound per its
volume, which can vary depending on the plant's mix of essential oils and
psychoactive compounds.[182] Butane and supercritical carbon dioxide hash oil have become popular in recent years.[183]
Infusions
There are many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to
the variety of non-volatile solvents used.[184] The plant material is mixed with the solvent and
then pressed and filtered to express the oils of the plant into the solvent.
Examples of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy butter,
cooking oil, glycerine, and skin
moisturizers. Depending on the solvent, these may be used in cannabis foods or applied topically.[185]
Marihuana
prensada
Main article: Marihuana prensada
Marihuana prensada ('pressed marijuana') is a cannabis-derived product
widespread among the lower classes of South America,[186] especially from the 90s. Locally it is known as
"paraguayo"
or "paragua",
since its main producer is Paraguay.[187] Marijuana is dried and mixed with binding agents that make it toxic and highly harmful to health.[188] It is cut into the shape of bricks (ladrillos)
and sold for a low price in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Venezuela, and even the United States.[189]
History
Main articles: History
of cannabis, Timeline
of cannabis law,
and Religion and
drugs
Ancient history
Present-day map of the Jirzankal Cemetery, site of the earliest evidence of cannabis smoking
Cannabis is indigenous to Central or South Asia[190] and its uses for fabric and rope dates back to
the Neolithic age in China and Japan.[191][192] It is unclear when cannabis first became known for
its psychoactive properties. The oldest archeological evidence for the burning
of cannabis was found in Romanian kurgans dated 3,500 BC, and scholars suggest that the drug
was first used in ritual ceremonies by Proto-Indo-European tribes living in the Pontic-Caspian
steppe during the Chalcolithic period, a custom they eventually spread throughout
Western Eurasia during the Indo-European
migrations.[193][194] Some research suggests that the ancient Indo-Iranian drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, sometimes contained cannabis. This is based on the
discovery of a basin containing cannabis in a shrine of the second millennium
BC in Turkmenistan.[195]
Cannabis was known to the ancient
Assyrians, who discovered
its psychoactive properties through the Iranians.[196] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called
it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a
probable origin of the modern word "cannabis".[197] The Iranians also introduced cannabis to the
Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai – "those who walk on
smoke/clouds") burned cannabis infructescences to induce trance.[198] The plant was used in China before 2800 BC, and
found therapeutic use in India by 1000 BC, where it was used in food and drink, including bhang.[199][200]
Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, c. 512 CE
Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and has
been used by religions around the world. It has been used as a drug for
both recreational and entheogenic purposes and in various traditional
medicines for
centuries.[201][202][163] The earliest evidence of cannabis smoking has been
found in the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the Pamir Mountains in Western China, where cannabis residue were found
in burners with charred pebbles possibly used during funeral rituals.[203][204] Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial
practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century
BC, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.[205] It was used by Muslims in various Sufi orders
as early as the Mamluk period,
for example by the Qalandars.[206] Smoking pipes uncovered in Ethiopia and
carbon-dated to around c. AD 1320 were found to have traces of
cannabis.[207]
Modern history
Cannabis was introduced to the New World by the Spaniards in 1530–1545.[208][209][210] Following an 1836–1840 travel in North Africa and
the Middle East, French physician Jacques-Joseph
Moreau wrote on the psychological
effects of cannabis use; he founded the Paris' Club des
Hashischins in 1844.[211] In 1842, Irish physician William
Brooke O'Shaughnessy,
who had studied the drug while working as a medical officer in Bengal with
the East India
Company, brought a
quantity of cannabis with him on his return to Britain,
provoking renewed interest in the West.[212] Examples of classic literature of the period
featuring cannabis include Les
paradis artificiels (1860)
by Charles
Baudelaire and The Hasheesh
Eater (1857)
by Fitz Hugh Ludlow.
Anti-cannabis propaganda from 1935
Cannabis was criminalized in some countries beginning in
the 14th century and was illegal in most countries by the middle of the 20th
century. The colonial government of Mauritius banned cannabis in 1840 over
concerns on its effect on Indian indentured workers;[213] the same occurred in Singapore in 1870.[214] In the United States, the first restrictions on
sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in the District of
Columbia).[215] Canada criminalized cannabis in The Opium
and Narcotic Drug Act, 1923,[216] before any reports of the use of the drug in
Canada, but eventually legalized its consumption for recreational and medicinal
purposes in 2018.[14]
In 1925, a compromise was made at an international
conference in The Hague about the International
Opium Convention that
banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries that had prohibited
its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the
importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for
medical or scientific purposes". It also required parties to
"exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit
international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin".[217][218] In the United States in 1937, the Marihuana
Tax Act was passed,[219] and prohibited the production of hemp in addition
to cannabis.
Cannabis indica fluid extract, American Druggists Syndicate (pre-1937)
In 1972, the Dutch government divided drugs into more-
and less-dangerous categories, with cannabis being in the lesser category.
Accordingly, possession of 30 grams (1.1 oz) or less was made a
misdemeanor.[220] Cannabis has been available for recreational use
in coffee
shops since 1976.[221] Cannabis products are only sold openly in certain
local "coffeeshops" and possession of up to 5 grams (0.18 oz)
for personal use is decriminalized, however: the police may still confiscate
it, which often happens in car checks near the border. Other types of sales and
transportation are not permitted, although the general approach toward cannabis
was lenient even before official decriminalization.[222][223][224]
In Uruguay, President Jose Mujica signed legislation to legalize
recreational cannabis in
December 2013, making Uruguay the first country in the modern era to legalize
cannabis. In August 2014, Uruguay legalized growing up to six plants at home,
as well as the formation of growing clubs (Cannabis social
club), and a state-controlled marijuana
dispensary regime.
As of 17 October 2018, when recreational use of
cannabis was legalized in Canada, dietary
supplements for human
use and veterinary
health products containing
not more than 10 parts per million of THC extract were approved for
marketing; Nabiximols (as
Sativex) is used as a prescription drug in Canada.[14]
The United Nations' World Drug Report stated that cannabis "was the world's most
widely produced, trafficked, and consumed drug in the world in 2010", and
estimated between 128 million and 238 million users globally in 2015.[225][226]
Culture,
legality and economics
Culture
Main article: Cannabis culture
See also: Drug culture and 420
(cannabis culture)
Process of making bhang in a Sikh village in Punjab, India. On the Hindu and Sikh festival of colors called Holi, it is a customary addition to some intoxicating drinks.[227]
Cannabis has been one of the most used psychoactive drugs in the world since the late 20th century, following
only tobacco and alcohol in
popularity.[228] According to Vera Rubin, the use of cannabis has
been encompassed by two major cultural complexes over time: a continuous,
traditional folk stream,
and a more circumscribed, contemporary configuration.[229] The former involves both sacred and secular use,
and is usually based on small-scale cultivation: the use of the plant for cordage,
clothing, medicine, food, and a "general use as an euphoriant and symbol of fellowship."[229][230] The second stream of expansion of cannabis use
encompasses "the use of hemp for commercial manufacturers utilizing
large-scale cultivation primarily as a fiber for mercantile purposes"; but
it is also linked to the search for psychedelic
experiences (which can
be traced back to the formation of the Parisian Club des
Hashischins).[230]
Legality
Main article: Legality
of cannabis
See also: Prohibition
of drugs and Drug
liberalization
Legal status of cannabis possession for non-medical use
Legal
Illegal
but decriminalized
Illegal
but often unenforced
Illegal
See also countries that have legalized medical use of cannabis.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries
have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession or transfer of
cannabis.[231] These laws have had an adverse effect on cannabis
cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where
handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the
penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis so that it is punished
by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more
on those who traffic the drug on the black market.
In some areas where cannabis use had been historically
tolerated, new restrictions were instituted, such as the closing of cannabis
coffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands,[232] and closing of coffee shops near secondary schools
in the Netherlands.[233] In Copenhagen, Denmark in 2014, mayor Frank Jensen discussed possibilities for the city to legalize
cannabis production and commerce.[234]
Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs
and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession
can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where
the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even
execution. Political parties, non-profit organizations, and causes based on the
legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing the plant entirely (with
some restrictions) have emerged in such countries as China and Thailand.[235][236]
In December 2012, the U.S. state of Washington became the first state to officially legalize
cannabis in a state law (Washington
Initiative 502)
(but still illegal by federal
law),[237] with the state of Colorado following
close behind (Colorado
Amendment 64).[238] On 1 January 2013, the first cannabis "club" for private marijuana smoking (no buying or
selling, however) was allowed for the first time in Colorado.[239] The California Supreme Court decided in May 2013
that local governments can ban medical cannabis dispensaries despite a state
law in California that permits the use of cannabis for medical purposes. At
least 180 cities across California have enacted bans in recent years.[240]
In December 2013, Uruguay became the first country to legalize growing, sale
and use of cannabis.[241] After a long delay in implementing the retail
component of the law, in 2017 sixteen pharmacies were authorized to sell
cannabis commercially.[242] On 19 June 2018, the Canadian Senate passed a bill
and the Prime Minister announced the effective legalization date as 17 October
2018.[14][243] Canada is the second country to legalize the drug.[244]
In November 2015, Uttarakhand became the first state of India to legalize the
cultivation of hemp for industrial purposes.[245] Usage within the Hindu and Buddhist cultures of
the Indian
subcontinent is common,
with many street vendors in India openly selling products infused with
cannabis, and traditional medical practitioners in Sri Lanka selling products
infused with cannabis for recreational purposes and well as for religious
celebrations.[246] Indian laws criminalizing cannabis date back to
the colonial period. India and Sri Lanka have allowed cannabis to be taken
in the context of traditional culture for recreational/celebratory purposes and
also for medicinal purposes.[246]
On 17 October 2015, Australian health minister Sussan Ley
presented a new law that will allow the cultivation of cannabis for scientific research and medical
trials on patients.[247]
On 17 October 2018, Canada legalized cannabis for
recreational adult use[248] making it the second country in the world to do so
after Uruguay and the first G7 nation.[249] The Canadian Licensed Producer system aims to become the Gold Standard in the
world for safe and secure cannabis production,[250] including provisions for a robust craft cannabis
industry where many expect opportunities for experimenting with different
strains.[251] Laws around use vary from province to province
including age limits, retail structure, and growing at home.[248]
As the drug has increasingly been seen as a health issue
instead of criminal behavior, cannabis has also been legalized or decriminalized in: Czech Republic,[252] Colombia,[253][254] Ecuador,[255][256][257] Portugal,[258] South
Africa[259] and Canada.[14] Medical marijuana was legalized in Mexico in
mid-2017; legislators plan to legalize its recreational use by late 2019.[260][261][262]
On 28 June 2021, Clarence Thomas, one of the U.S. Supreme
Court's most conservative justices,
possibly opened the door to federal legalization of cannabis in the United
States when he wrote "A prohibition on interstate use or cultivation of
[cannabis] may no longer be necessary or proper to support the federal government's
piecemeal approach."[263]
Legal status by country
As of 2022, Uruguay and Canada are the only countries that have fully legalized
the cultivation, consumption and bartering of recreational cannabis nationwide.[264][265] In the United States, 24 states, 3 territories, and the District of Columbia
have legalized the recreational use of cannabis – though the drug remains
illegal at the federal level.[266] Laws vary from state to state when it comes to the
commercial sale. Court rulings in Georgia and
South Africa have led to the legalization of cannabis consumption, but not
legal sales. A policy of limited enforcement has also been adopted in many
countries, in particular Spain and the Netherlands where the sale of cannabis is tolerated at licensed
establishments.[267][268] Contrary to popular belief, cannabis is not legal
in the Netherlands,[269] but it has been decriminalized since the 1970s. In
2021, Malta was
the first European Union member to legalize the use of cannabis for
recreational purposes.[270] In Estonia,
it is only legal to sell cannabis products with a THC content of less than
0.2%, although products may contain more cannabidiol.[271] Lebanon has
recently become the first Arab country to legalize the plantation of cannabis
for medical use.[272]
Penalties for illegal recreational use ranges from
confiscation or small fines to jail time and even death.[273] In some countries citizens can be punished if they
have used the drug in another country, including Singapore and South Korea.[274][275]
Economics
Production
Main articles: Cannabis
cultivation, Cannabis industry, and Cannabis
product testing
Woman selling cannabis and bhang in Guwahati, Assam, India
Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the
dried, seedless (i.e. parthenocarpic) infructescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination
occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated
before they shed pollen to prevent pollination, thus inducing the development
of parthenocarpic fruits
gathered in dense infructescences.
Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity
artificial lighting,
and the
sea of green method are
frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts
that make outdoor cultivation more risky.
"Skunk" refers to several named strains of
potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and sometimes hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa and C.
indica (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk
cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The
average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.[276]
The average levels of THC in cannabis sold in the United
States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000.[277] This is disputed for various reasons, and there is
little consensus as to whether this is a fact or an artifact of poor testing
methodologies.[277] According to Daniel Forbes writing for slate.com,
the relative strength of modern strains are likely skewed because undue weight
is given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent, samples.[278] Some suggest that results are skewed by older
testing methods that included low-THC-content plant material such as leaves in
the samples, which are excluded in contemporary tests. Others believe that
modern strains actually are significantly more potent than older ones.[277]
The main producing countries of cannabis are Afghanistan,[279] Canada,[280] China, Colombia,[281] India,[279] Jamaica,[279] Lebanon,[282] Mexico,[283] Morocco,[279] the Netherlands, Pakistan, Paraguay,[283] Spain,[279] Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom,[284] and the United States.[279]
Price
The price or street value of cannabis varies widely
depending on geographic area and potency.[285] Prices and overall markets have also varied
considerably over time.
·
In
1997, cannabis was estimated to be overall the number four value crop in the
US, and number one or two in many states, including California, New York, and
Florida. This estimate is based on a value to growers of ~60% of retail value,
or $3,000 per pound ($6,600/kg).[286]
·
In
2006, cannabis was estimated to have been a $36 billion market.[287] This estimate has been challenged as exaggerated.[40] The UN World Drug Report (2008) estimated that 2006
street prices in the US and Canada ranged from about US$8.8 to $25 per gram
(approximately $250 to $700 per ounce), depending on quality.[288] Typical U.S. retail prices were $10–15 per gram
(approximately $280–420 per ounce).
·
In
2017, the U.S. was estimated to constitute 90% of the worldwide
$9.5 billion legal trade in cannabis.[289]
After some U.S. states legalized cannabis, street prices
began to drop. In Colorado, the price of smokable buds (infructescences)
dropped 40 percent between 2014 and 2019, from $200 per ounce to $120 per ounce
($7 per gram to $4.19 per gram).[290]
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for
cannabis varied from €2 to €20 per gram in 2008, with a majority of European
countries reporting prices in the range €4–10.[291]
Cannabis
as a gateway drug
See also: Gateway
drug effect
The gateway hypothesis states that cannabis use increases
the probability of trying "harder" drugs. The hypothesis has been
hotly debated as it is regarded by some as the primary rationale for the United
States prohibition on cannabis use.[292][293] A Pew Research
Center poll found that political
opposition to marijuana use was significantly associated with concerns about
the health effects and whether legalization would increase cannabis use by
children.[294]
Some studies state that while there is no proof for the
gateway hypothesis,[295] young cannabis users should still be considered as
a risk group for intervention programs.[296] Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be poly-drug users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple
drugs instead of a single hard drug.[297] Almost two-thirds of the poly drug users in the
2009–2010 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey used cannabis.[298]
The gateway effect may appear due to social factors
involved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegal status of cannabis,
its consumers are likely to find themselves in situations allowing them to
acquaint with individuals using or selling other illegal drugs.[299][300] Studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may
additionally be regarded as gateway drugs;[301] however, a more parsimonious explanation could be
that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than
illegal hard drugs. In turn, alcohol and tobacco are typically easier to obtain
at an earlier age than is cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some
areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those individuals,
since they are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.[292]
A related alternative to the gateway hypothesis is the
common liability to addiction (CLA) theory. It states that some individuals
are, for various reasons, willing to try multiple recreational substances. The
"gateway" drugs are merely those that are (usually) available at an
earlier age than the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an extensive
review that it is dangerous to present the sequence of events described in
gateway "theory" in causative terms as this hinders both research and
intervention.[302]
In 2020, the National
Institute on Drug Abuse released
a study backing allegations that marijuana is a gateway to harder drugs, though
not for the majority of marijuana users.[303] The National Institute on Drug Abuse determined
that marijuana use is "likely to precede use of other licit and illicit
substances" and that "adults who reported marijuana use during the
first wave of the survey were more likely than adults who did not use marijuana
to develop an alcohol use disorder within 3 years; people who used marijuana
and already had an alcohol use disorder at the outset were at greater risk of
their alcohol use disorder worsening. Marijuana use is also linked to other
substance use disorders including nicotine addiction."[303] It also reported that "These findings are
consistent with the idea of marijuana as a "gateway drug." However,
the majority of people who use marijuana do not go on to use other,
"harder" substances. Also, cross-sensitization is not unique to
marijuana. Alcohol and nicotine also prime the brain for a heightened response
to other drugs and are, like marijuana, also typically used before a person
progresses to other, more harmful substances."[303]
Research
See also: Medical
cannabis research
Research on cannabis is challenging since the plant
is illegal in most
countries.[304][305][306][307][308] Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to
obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national
regulatory agencies, such as the US Food
and Drug Administration.[309]
There are also other difficulties in researching the
effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis also smoke tobacco.[310] This causes confounding factors, where questions
arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a
cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke
cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries,
people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take
part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.[311]
See
also
References
Footnotes
1. ^ /ˈkænəbɪs/[1]
3. ^ Psychotic
episodes are well-documented and typically resolve within minutes or hours,
while symptoms may last longer.[47] The use of a single joint can temporarily induce
some psychiatric symptoms.[48]
4. ^ A
2016 review also found a statistically significant increase in crash risk
associated with marijuana use, but noted that this risk was "of low to
medium magnitude."[54] The increase in risk of motor vehicle crash for
cannabis use is between 2 and 3 times relative to baseline, whereas that for
comparable doses of alcohol is between 6 and 15 times.[55]
5. ^ Advocates of legalizing marijuana for recreational
use, such as former Illinois state Senator Heather Steans, say that legalizing it would help reduce such hazardous
added drugs: "Over 95 percent are buying it on the black market. You don't
know what you're buying. It's not a safe product. We've seen it laced with rat
poison, fentanyl, all sorts of things. It's funding the cartels and other
criminal activity."[162]
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External
links
Look up Appendix:Cannabis
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Media related to Cannabis at Wikimedia Commons
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Cannabis
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